AUSTRIA

Standard naturalisation: generally after 10 years of lawful and continuous residence, including at least five years in a settled status. Earlier naturalisation may be possible in certain circumstances, including some cases after six years. Applicants generally need sufficient German-language knowledge, financial self-sufficiency, good conduct and knowledge of Austria's democratic system. Austria also has specific routes connected with descent and descendants of persons persecuted by the Nazi regime.There is no standard Austrian citizenship-by-investment programme.

BELGIUM

Main residence-based route: citizenship may be available after five years of legal residence for applicants who meet the relevant language, social integration and economic participation requirements. 

Different requirements apply depending on the applicant's circumstances. Spouses of Belgian citizens may qualify under a specific five-year residence category where the statutory family and integration requirements are met. Citizenship can also arise through Belgian parentage and certain birth-related circumstances. Belgium does not operate a citizenship-by-investment programme.

BULGARIA

Naturalisation generally requires the applicant to have held permanent or long-term residence status for at least five years and to satisfy additional statutory requirements. A reduced route can apply in certain cases, including qualifying spouses of Bulgarian citizens. Bulgarian origin can provide a separate and potentially more favourable pathway. Bulgaria's former investment-based citizenship provisions were repealed in 2022. 

Investment should therefore not be presented as a current direct route to Bulgarian citizenship.

CROATIA

Standard naturalisation: generally requires eight years of continuous registered residence in Croatia and permanent residence status. Applicants normally need knowledge of the Croatian language, Latin script, Croatian culture and social system and must satisfy legal and security requirements. Different rules apply to spouses of Croatian citizens, Croatian emigrants and their descendants, and certain other categories. 

There is no standard citizenship-by-investment programme.

CYPRUS

The current ordinary naturalisation framework generally requires:

• twelve months of continuous lawful residence immediately before applying; and

• at least seven years of lawful residence during the preceding ten-year period.

Applicants must also satisfy additional requirements relating to character, language, knowledge of Cypriot society, accommodation and financial resources. Different rules may apply to certain highly skilled applicants and family categories. Cyprus terminated its former citizenship-by-investment programme in 2020. Current property or investment-based residence opportunities must not be confused with citizenship.

CZECH REPUBLIC

Naturalisation is available to qualifying permanent residents.

The standard residence condition may be satisfied through:

• at least five years of permanent residence;

• at least three years of permanent residence for EU citizens; or

• continuous lawful residence in the Czech Republic for at least ten years together with permanent residence.

Language, integration and other statutory requirements also apply. Citizenship may also be acquired through Czech parentage or other special statutory routes.

ESTONIA

Applicants for naturalisation generally need to have lived legally in Estonia for at least eight years, including at least five years on a permanent basis.

A long-term residence permit or permanent right of residence is normally required.

Applicants must also demonstrate Estonian-language knowledge, knowledge of the Constitution and Citizenship Act, legal income and loyalty to the Estonian state.

Citizenship by birth is primarily based on descent.

FINLAND

The statutory general residence period for applications submitted under the current rules is eight years.

However, a shorter five-year period may apply where the applicant meets the required Finnish or Swedish language standard, as well as in certain other categories. Applicants must also meet requirements concerning identity, language, conduct, payment obligations and financial resources. Special rules apply to Nordic citizens and certain family situations.

FRANCE

Standard naturalisation: generally requires at least five years of residence in France.

Exceptions and reduced requirements exist in specific circumstances.

Applicants are assessed on factors including:

• legal residence;

• French-language ability;

• integration;

• knowledge of French society and republican values;

• professional and financial integration;

• conduct.

Separate procedures exist for citizenship through marriage, parentage and certain family connections.

GERMANY

Naturalisation is generally possible after more than five years of lawful residence where the other statutory requirements are met. Applicants generally need:

• an appropriate residence status;

• German language knowledge at approximately B1 level;

• financial self-sufficiency;

• knowledge of Germany's legal and social system;

• a qualifying criminal record.

Germany's citizenship reform also significantly expanded the possibility of holding multiple citizenships. There is no citizenship-by-investment programme.

GREECE

Standard naturalisation: generally requires seven years of continuous lawful residence.

A three-year period can apply to certain categories, including qualifying EU citizens and some family situations involving Greek citizens. Applicants must also satisfy integration, language and legal requirements. Greek descent can provide a fundamentally different route and should always be investigated where relevant. Greece's investment residence programme provides residence rights, not automatic citizenship.

HUNGARY

Standard naturalisation: generally requires eight years of continuous residence in Hungary. Preferential naturalisation is available in several circumstances. Hungary has an especially important simplified naturalisation procedure for people who can establish Hungarian ancestry or Hungarian origin and demonstrate sufficient Hungarian-language knowledge. 

Certain spouses of Hungarian citizens can also qualify for simplified naturalisation, including:

• after at least ten years of marriage; or

• after at least five years of marriage where the couple has a child together,

subject to the statutory requirements, including Hungarian-language knowledge.

For applicants with Hungarian ancestry, citizenship eligibility should therefore be examined before considering residence-based naturalisation.

IRELAND

For ordinary naturalisation, an applicant generally needs five years of reckonable residence during the previous nine years. This includes one continuous year immediately before the application. Irish descent is particularly important. 

Depending on the circumstances, a person with an Irish parent or grandparent may already be an Irish citizen or may qualify through the Foreign Births Register. 

Spouses and civil partners of Irish citizens have a separate naturalisation route subject to residence and relationship requirements.

Ireland's former Immigrant Investor Programme was closed to new applications in February 2023 and was a residence programme, not a direct citizenship programme.

ITALY

For non-EU nationals, ordinary naturalisation generally requires ten years of legal residence. Shorter periods apply to several categories, including EU citizens and certain people with Italian connections.

Citizenship through marriage is also available under separate rules. Italy has traditionally had an important citizenship-by-descent route, but the rules governing citizenship jure sanguinis were significantly amended in 2025. For ancestry cases, the precise generation, dates, previous citizenship status and family documentation should therefore be reviewed under the current legislation rather than relying on older online guidance. Italy also has an investor residence programme, but investment residence is not direct Italian citizenship.

LATVIA

Naturalisation generally requires the applicant to have lived permanently in Latvia for the required period, including five years connected with permanent residence status under the applicable rules.

Applicants must normally demonstrate:

• Latvian-language knowledge;

• knowledge of the Constitution;

• knowledge of Latvian history and culture;

• knowledge of the national anthem;

• lawful means of support.

Rules concerning retention or renunciation of another citizenship depend on the applicant's existing nationality and circumstances. Investment-based residence does not itself provide Latvian citizenship.

LITHUANIA

Standard naturalisation: generally requires ten years of lawful permanent residence.

Applicants must normally:

• have permanent residence rights;

• pass the Lithuanian-language examination;

• pass an examination on the fundamentals of the Constitution;

• have a lawful source of income;

• satisfy the applicable citizenship and dual-nationality rules.

Lithuanian descent and restoration of citizenship are important alternative pathways and should be examined separately.

LUXEMBURG

Naturalisation is generally available after at least five years of legal residence.

The final year immediately before the application must normally be uninterrupted.

Applicants must satisfy Luxembourgish-language requirements and complete or pass the required civic integration component.

Luxembourg also has several special option procedures and routes relating to ancestry and former Luxembourg citizenship.

MALTA

Ordinary Maltese naturalisation remains legally possible on the basis of residence. The residence framework generally requires twelve months immediately before the application plus four years during the preceding six years.

Naturalisation remains discretionary. 

Malta's former Citizenship by Naturalisation for Exceptional Services by Direct Investment programme has been discontinued.

Following the 2025 judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union, Malta removed the transactional citizenship-by-investment framework from its legislation.

Malta now maintains a separate citizenship by merit framework for exceptional contributions or services. This is not an investment programme, is discretionary and must not be promoted as an alternative “Golden Passport” scheme.

NETHERLANDS

Foreign nationals can generally apply for naturalisation after at least five years of legal residence. Applicants normally need to meet residence, civic integration, language, public-order and other requirements. Several exceptions and special routes exist, including the option procedure for specific categories. Rules concerning retention of an applicant's existing nationality require particular attention because Dutch law can require renunciation in some naturalisation cases, subject to exceptions.

POLAND

Poland has several different citizenship procedures. One important route is recognition as a Polish citizen. For one common category, an applicant must have resided continuously for at least three years on the basis of:

• permanent residence;

• EU long-term resident status; or

• permanent right of residence,

and must also demonstrate stable income and a legal title to accommodation.

This does not mean that three years of ordinary residence in Poland automatically leads to citizenship. Other routes exist for spouses, people of Polish origin and through a discretionary grant of citizenship by the President of Poland.

PORTUGAL

Portugal's nationality rules changed significantly on 19 May 2026. For applications made under the new rules, the standard minimum legal-residence period for naturalisation is now:

• 7 years for citizens of EU Member States and countries whose official language is Portuguese;

• 10 years for nationals of other countries.

The 2026 reform also introduced additional naturalisation requirements relating to Portuguese culture, national history, constitutional and civic knowledge, adherence to democratic principles, financial self-sufficiency and certain security and criminal-law conditions. The former special route for descendants of Sephardic Jews was removed for new applications. Portugal continues to have important citizenship routes based on Portuguese ancestry and family relationships.

Portugal's residence-by-investment system must be treated separately from citizenship. Investment does not create automatic Portuguese citizenship.

ROMANIA

Ordinary naturalisation generally requires at least eight years of lawful residence under the applicable residence status.

For an applicant married to and living with a Romanian citizen, the relevant period can be five years from the date of marriage. Applicants must also meet conditions concerning:

• loyalty to Romania;

• good conduct;

• lawful financial resources;

• Romanian-language knowledge;

• knowledge of Romanian culture and civilisation;

• knowledge of the Constitution and national anthem.

Romanian law also contains important restoration and ancestry-related provisions which may provide a different route for descendants of former Romanian citizens.

SLOVAKIA

Ordinary naturalisation generally requires at least eight years of continuous permanent residence immediately before the application. Applicants must also satisfy requirements concerning:

• good character;

• Slovak-language knowledge;

• general knowledge of Slovakia;

• compliance with tax, immigration, health insurance and other legal obligations;

• public and national security.

Certain exceptions apply.For example, a qualifying spouse of a Slovak citizen who has lived with that spouse in Slovakia may be able to apply under reduced conditions.

Slovak ancestry and the status of Slovaks living abroad can also be relevant.

Slovenia
Naturalization: Requires 10 years of residence, Slovenian language proficiency.
Descent: Citizenship through Slovenian parents.
Marriage: Requires 3 years of marriage and residence in Slovenia.
Investment: No specific investment program.

SPAIN

Standard naturalisation by residence: generally requires ten years of legal, continuous residence immediately before the application. Spanish law provides substantially reduced residence periods for certain applicants, including particular nationality, family and personal categories.

Marriage to a Spanish citizen can significantly reduce the residence requirement where the statutory conditions are satisfied, but marriage itself does not automatically grant Spanish citizenship.

Citizenship may also arise through Spanish parentage, option and exceptional discretionary naturalisation. Spain's former investor residence or “Golden Visa” system ended in 2025. Investment in Spanish property therefore no longer represents the old Golden Visa route and never provided automatic Spanish citizenship.

SWEDEN

Swedish citizenship law changed substantially on 6 June 2026. The general residence requirement increased from five years to eight years. Additional requirements now include stronger good-conduct standards, financial self-sufficiency and knowledge requirements relating to Swedish language and society. Special residence periods apply to certain groups.

For example:

• Nordic citizens may qualify after two years;

• stateless applicants generally after five years;

• recognised refugees generally after seven years;

• certain applicants living with a Swedish citizen are subject to a seven-year residence rule and additional relationship requirements.

Applications that had not been decided before the new rules entered into force are generally assessed under the new framework.